In Before Atlantis we first proposed that a series of crustal displacements changed the location, and hence the direction of the geographic North Pole four times over the past 130,000 years. In this, the third of three parts, we show that alignments relative to a former pole offers an alternative explanation for the alignment of the Parthenon, and two Temples in Sounio, which otherwise have no known explanation.
A Temple Aligned to the Cardinal Directions
East of the Acropolis, the Temple of Olympian Zeus is oriented north-south-east-west. Construction began in the 6th century BCE but was not completed until the reign of Roman Emperor Hadrian in the 2nd century CE. During the Roman period, the temple, which included 104 colossal columns, was renowned as the largest temple in Greece and housed one of the largest cult statues in the ancient world.
Temple of Olympian Zeus is a vast temple begun in 6th century B.C. on the site of an ancient outdoor sanctuary dedicated to Zeus. (Ava Babili/Creative Commons)Overhead view of the Temple of Olympian Zeus
The Parthenon, constructed over this period and less than half a kilometer away, was aligned differently. As noted in Part 2, the Acropolis and the Southern Citadel at Tiryns are oriented in the same direction.
A global analysis of archaeological sites in Beyond Atlantis suggests the practice of building new structures over and around older structures/foundations is commonplace throughout the world. It is probable and even likely that the Athenians took advantage of pre-existing foundations on the Acropolis and built over earlier Mycenaean ruins preserving their original alignment direction.
This, then, takes us to the central question of what was the significance of this direction?
A Theory of Human Behavior
In Part 2, we showed how the tradition of aligning important sites in luni-solar directions endured a series of significant climate change events over the past 10,000 years. In contrast to the prevailing view that modern human culture developed as a response to climate and ecological changes at the end of the ice age, Edmond Furter offers a different perspective:
“We did not invent, develop, or change culture. Culture is part of the human package, at least since Gรถbekli at BC 8000, cave art about BC 20 000, Blombos shelter about BC 70 000, and perhaps even Border Cave about BC 100 000, with the usual ensemble of tools, clothing, cosmetics, and trade. Human behaviour is static, and thus predictable, down to the structure of artworks and building sites.”
If Furter is correct โ that human behavior is static down to the structure of ancient sites, then perhaps human societies have always aligned buildings to the Sun and the Moon. In other words, there is nothing special about Gรถbekli Tepe โ it is simply an example of how the people at that time were expressing a pattern of behavior that has existed throughout human history.
If this behavior extended even further back in time, to our prehistory, it could explain the alignment of sites that otherwise have no explanation.
Previous Locations of the North Pole
If, like the Athenians, the Mycenaean Greeks built over the ruins of structures built over ruins of even earlier structures that survived climate change and crustal displacement events, preserved site footprints can tell us when the site was first constructed and how it was astronomically aligned.
By testing predicted archaeo-astronomical alignments relative to previous poles, the original foundations under the South Citadel at Tiryns and the Parthenon on the Acropolis can be shown to have have been oriented to the cardinal directions if the North Pole were in Greenland.
Alignment of the Parthenon to the Greenland Pole.
Temples at Sounio
Consider two Classical Greek temples, the Temple of Poseidon and the Temple of Athena, both in Sounio. Unlike the Parthenon, there is no alternative explanation for their alignment. However, if we shift our geographic reference back to the time of the Greenland pole, the Temple of Poseidon would have been aligned to solstices and the nearby Temple of Athena to minor lunar standstills.
Temple of Poseidon at Sounio.Solstice alignment of the major axis of the Temple of Poseidon rotated to the Greenland Pole. Minor lunar standstill alignment of the major axis of the Temple of Athena relative to the Greenland Pole.Ruins of the Temple of Athena at Sounio.
It is interesting that a temple dedicated to the male deity Poseidon is aligned to the Sun and a nearby temple dedicated to the female deity Athena is aligned to the Moon. This practice, which is not without precedent in Greece and elsewhere in the ancient world is the topic of a future article.
Meton did not discover the so-called Metonic cycle, but rediscovered an astronomical phenomenon that was known to the Babylonians at an observatory on Pnyx Hill that was aligned to the Moon. The nearby Sanctuary of Zeus on Apostolou Pavlou built a couple of hundred years earlier was similarly aligned. In this, the second of three parts, we present evidence that a practical knowledge of the motion of both the Sun and Moon were known and used by previous civilizations to aligned sacred/ceremonial sites in the directions of solstices and lunar standstills long before the Greeks.
Lunar Standstills
Similar to the way solstices are the most northern and southern sunrise/sunset directions over the course of a year, lunar standstills are the most northern and southern moonrises/moonsets over a lunar cycle. Major lunar standstills occur every 18.6 years. Minor lunar standstills occur 9.3 years later.
Time lapse moonrises during one month at a minor lunar standstill. (Stellarium)Tie lapse moonrises during one month at a major lunar standstill. (Stellarium)
In an overhead view, the bedrock foundation of the Sanctuary of Zeus appears be oriented in the direction of northern minor standstill moonrises/southern minor standstill moonsets. In other words every 18.6 years the Moon would rise and set along the major axis of the site.
Overhead view of the Sanctuary of Zeus. (Google Earth)
Interestingly, the area surrounding Metonโs observatory appears to be aligned in complementary minor lunar standstill directions, namely toward southern minor standstill moonrises/northern minor standstill moonsets.
Overhead view of the area surrounding Metonโs observatory. (Google Earth)
Gรถbekli Tepe
Believed to be among the world’s oldest known temples, Gรถbekli Tepe has been dated to a period in human prehistory known as the Neolithic Transition, when our nomadic hunter-gatherer ancestors began to lead a more settled lifestyle, growing crops, and building permanent settlements.
Excavations at Gรถbekli Tepe revealed the existence of monumental, circular enclosures built from massive T-shaped stone pillars. Numerous pillars appear to be aligned to certain stars and in lunisolar directions, specifically east-west in the direction of sunrise on the Equinox, and to major and minor lunar standstills ~8500 BCE.
Minor standstill alignments at Gรถbekli Tepe. Background graphic courtesy (De Lorenzis & Orofino 2015).
The 8.2 ka Event
Gรถbekli Tepe was constructed in the millenium following the end of the Younger Dryas, a well-known global climate event that occured between 10900 and 9700 BCE.
Several other less-known but significant global climate events followed the Younger Dryas. The 8.2 ka event was the largest and most abrupt climate cooling event of the Holocene epoch, occurring ~6200 BCE. Triggered in large part by the collapse of the Laurentide Ice Sheet over Hudson Bay, a massive influx amount of fresh cold water weakened the Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation (AMOC) causing widespread cooling across Europe, accompanied by regional shifts in precipitation, vegetation, and human activity. Early farming communities in Mesopotamia, Anatolia, and the Levant faced crop failures and livestock stress. Human populations adapted by migrating to more habitable zones and diversifying food sources.
Minor lunar standstill moonrise and moonset directions at Dimini.
A late Neolithic settlement at Dimini was established ~5000 BCE. The original village featured a highly unique layout consisting of six or seven concentric circular stone walls enclosing a central courtyard and a large rectangular building called a megaron. It housed an estimated 200โ300 people who farmed, raised livestock, and traded. After being abandoned for a period during the Bronze Age, Dimini re-emerged as a Mycenaean palatial and urban center. This later settlement (tentatively identified as the legendary city of Iolkos, home of the Argonauts) featured large workshops, a palace, and impressive vaulted tombs before being permanently abandoned around the 12th century BCE. Dimini, like Gรถbekli Tepe, appears to be aligned to the Moon, specifically in the direction of southern minor standstill moonrises/northern minor standstill moonsets.
Alignments at Tiryns to northern moonrises and southern moonsets at minor lunar standstills (top) and in an unknown direction (bottom). (Google Earth)
A settlement at Tiryns was first established ~3000 BCE. The South Citadel is the highest point and the oldest part of the site. It features early Bronze Age architectural remains and the later cyclopean fortification. During a massive remodeling process, the Mycenaeans expanded earlier walls to legendary proportions using mortarless limestone blocks up to 8 meters thick and 13 meters high. Where the South Citadel does not appear to be oriented in any obvious direction, the North Citadel, which was built later,ย like Gobekli Tepe and Dimini, appears to be aligned to the Moon.
The 4.2 ka Event
Structures built at Tiryns bracketed another major climate event that occured approximately 2200 BCE. The 4.2 ka event is considered one of the most severe climate-induced periods of collapse in ancient history. A sudden, global megadrought caused the decline/fragmentation of several major civilizations including the Akkadian Empire (Mesopotamia), the Old Kingdom (Egypt), and the Liangzhu Culture (China). Like the Younger Dryas and 8.2 ka events, the 4.2 ka event is attributed to a weakened AMOC.
The Minoan civilization flourished on the island of Crete during the Bronze Age from approximately 3000โ1100 BCE. During the Early Bronze Age, the Minoans transitioned from small Neolithic farming communities to towns and maritime trade. Construction of monumental palaces such as Knossos, Phaistos, Malia, and Zakros occurred in the Middle Bronze Age. Although places like Malia and Phaistos are not aligned in any obvious astronomical direction, Zakros appears to contain structures aligned to the Sun and the Moon.
Alignments at Zakros to southern moonrises and northern moonsets at major lunar standstills. The area just above is aligned to the winter solstice sunrise/summer solstice sunset.
The Bronze Age Collapse
The period around 1200 BCE is called the Bronze Age collapse. A subject of some controversy, some say it was another global climate event, while others argue that is was triggered by the invasion of Sea Peoples from the west. During this time, the interconnected civilizations of the Aegean, Mediterranean, and Near East fragmented and collapsed including the Minoans following the massive volcanic eruption on the island of Thera (Santorini), and eventually the Mycenaeans, whose demise ushered in the Greek Dark Ages.
Archaic and Classical Periods
The Archaic Period in Greece lasted from roughly 800 BCE to 480 BCE, bridging the gap between the Greek Dark Ages and the Classical period.
Linear B, the oldest surviving syllabic script used to write Mycenaean Greek evolved from an earlier, still-undeciphered (Linear A) script used by the Minoans. During the Greek Dark Ages, Linear B was lost. Writing did not reappear until after the creation of the Greek alphabet early in the Archaic Period. Expansion of trade, colonization across the Mediterranean, and the rise of the polis (city-state) occurred later.
The Classical Period began around 480 BC with the Greek victory in the Greco-Persian Wars. Under the direction of the Greek statesman Pericles, the Parthenon and other sacred temples were built to replace older, Archaic-period temples that were destroyed by the Persian army decades earlier. The Acropolis had been a sacred space and fortified citadel for centuries, dating back to Mycenaean Bronze Age settlements (c. 1300 BCE). The first major stone temples to Athena were erected during the Archaic period in the 7th and 6th centuries BCE. Pericles built directly on top of their sacred footprints. In particular, the Parthenon was built over the foundations of an unfinished predecessor (often called the Older Parthenon).
Major axis of the Acropolis is in the same direction as the South Citadel at Tiryns. (Google Earth)
Unlike Metonโs Observatory on Pnyx and the Sanctuary of Zeus along Apostolou Pavlou, none of the structures atop the Acropolis appear to be astronomically aligned. However there is an interesting similarity between the orientation of the older structures at South Citadel at Tiryns and the Parthenon. Both appear to be aligned in the same direction with no obvious significance. The third and final part of this article proposes another explanation that points to a new direction in archaeological research.
This article examines the foundations of Greek architecture, literally. In this, the first of three parts, we begin in Athens at Pnyx Hill and the Acropolis.
Pnyx Hill
Walking south on Apostolou Pavlou north of Pnyx, we pass the bedrock foundations of a ancient site dedicated to Zeus. The Sanctuary of Zeus is an open-air site containing five sacred niches and carved rock altars at the base of the Hill of the Nymphs. Dating back to the 6th century BCE, it is one of the earliest known open-air cult worship sites dedicated to Zeus in ancient Athens.
Sanctuary of Zeus looking west.
Continuing on Apostolou Pavlou, we pass the ancient Roman Agora on the left and the Sanctuary of Pan on the right. Just before reaching the bottom of the hill, we turn right and follow a road back up the hill. Nearing the top, we head off on a stone footpath to the right that passes through a section of the Themistoclean Wall. We are now at the top of Pnyx Hill, the birthplace of Athenian democracy, where thousands of Athenians came to listen, debate, and vote.
The Themistoclean Wall was originally built in the 5th century BCE as a perimeter defense following the Persian Wars
In front of us is the foundation of an observatory constructed around 433 BC, where the Greek astronomer Meton calculated solstices and equinoxes. By observing sunrise alignments relative to distant landmarks like Mount Lycabettus and Mount Hymettos, he discovered (or rather rediscovered) the Metonic Cycle where a particular phase of the Moon such as a full (or new) Moon occurs on the same calendar day every 19 years.
Phase III (~330 BCE) expanded the site using massive limestone blocks, featuring a striking, terraced cyclopean retaining wall to the south.
Southern retaining wall built by the Romans looking east toward the Acropolis in the distance.
The Acropolis
The Acropolis originated as a Bronze Age Mycenaean fortress and royal residence around 1300 BCE. Derived from the Greek words akron (highest point) and polis (city), the rocky citadel transitioned into a sacred religious center after the Mycenaean period.
View of the Acropolis from the foot of Pnyx Hill.
The Parthenon was a marble temple on the Acropolis dedicated to the goddess Athena. Constructed between 447 and 432 BCE, it is thought to have been aligned to sunrise on the Panathenaea โ a festival in honor of the cityโs patron goddess, Athena, which was celebrated in late July early August.
Simulated Google Earth sunrise view on the Panathenaea. It is noted that the same lighting occurs in late April, early May as well
The Attic (Athenian) calendar beginsย in midsummer with the lunar month of Hekatombaion. The Panathenaea was held at the end of the Hekatombaia, which began with the first new Moon after the summer solstice in late July, early August. The first Panathenaea occurred in 566 BC almost a century before the Parthenon was built. It is plausible that the Parthenon was oriented in such a way for this to happen at the end of the Hekatombaia.
Lunar Cycles and Architecture
Is is interesting that Meton was in the process of working out the Moon’s 19-year cycle where a particular phase of the Moon such as a full (or new) Moon occurs on the same calendar day every 19 years at around the same time Parthenon was supposed aligned in just this way. The Metonic cycle is fundamentally about repeatability: same Moon phase, same season, same civic ritual time. Monumental architecture can serve exactly the same purpose by fixing celestial recurrence in stone. So even if Meton never touched the Parthenon plans, both may represent parallel expressions of a larger Athenian attempt to regularize cosmic time.
The construction of Parthenon and the work of Meton suggests they may reflect a broader Athenian effort to unify architecture, religion, and celestial timekeeping. Metonโs 19-year lunisolar cycle regularized the recurrence of lunar phases within the solar year and governed the timing of festivals such as the Panathenea. If the Parthenon was intentionally aligned to a festival sunrise or significant lunar event, its orientation may embody the same calendrical principles Meton was formalizing mathematically. Although there is no direct evidence that Meton participated in the templeโs design, both developments appear to arise from a common intellectual movement in fifth-century Athens seeking to synchronize civic ritual, sacred architecture, and the cycles of the heavens.
This is a nice theory except for the fact that the Parthenon was built over an earlier structure. The Pre-Parthenon (or Older Parthenon) was begun shortly after the Battle of Marathon, between 490 and 488 BCE. It was still under construction when the invading Persian army sacked Athens and heavily destroyed the Acropolis in 480 BCE. This is roughly three decades before Meton.
The question then is what determined the alignment of the original Parthenon. This and other related questions are considered in Part 2.
A recent paper examines a variety of ancient sites including stone circles, tumuli and kofuns associated with Japanese rulers, castles, temples, and other structures. Analysis of site alignments provides insight into the evolution of astronomical knowledge in Japan, and the role of Shinto, geomancy, and other influences in the design and layout of these sites. This article discusses two of Japanโs most enigmatic megalithic structures.
Introduction
Japanese history begins with the long prehistory of the Jomon Period (c. 14,000โ300 BCE), when hunter-gatherer communities created some of the worldโs earliest pottery and developed complex ritual and village life long before agriculture became widespread. The succeeding Yayoi period (c. 300 BCEโ300 CE) saw the introduction of wet-rice farming, metal tools, and social stratificationโchanges largely driven by interactions with the Korean Peninsula and China. By the Kofun period (c. 250โ538 CE), powerful clans built massive keyhole-shaped tombs for their leaders and laid the foundations of a unified Yamato state. The Asuka and Nara periods (6thโ8th centuries) brought Buddhism, Chinese-style law codes, and Japanโs first centralized imperial institutions. Over time, political power shifted to the warrior class, leading to centuries of samurai rule under various shogunates. Although later eras โ medieval, early modern, and modern โ transformed Japan in dramatic ways, the deep cultural roots of the Jomon, Yayoi, Kofun, and early imperial periods remain fundamental to understanding Japanโs historical identity.
View of Osaka Castle from the southwest. (Photo by author)
Osaka Castle
We begin at Osaka Castle where Japan’s third-largest megalith is a part of one of the castle’s inner walls. Osaka Castle was built during the Shogunate Period when Japan was ruled by a hereditary military commander called a shogun. Numerous castles were established during this period. A practice known as feng shui, which was introduced to Japan from China around the 7th century, played a role in how shoguns and regional lords selected, oriented, and structured castles, castle towns, and even entire capitals. While not every decision was based on geomancy, feng shui principles were widely understood and frequently invoked from the medieval era onward.
Orange dotted line the approximate direction of geomagnetic north c. 1500 CE.
Osaka Castle is aligned in the direction of geomagnetic north circa 1500 CE, which is close to its actual date of construction of 1597. (A similar practice appears to have been used in China to align enormous earthern mounds that served as tombs and mausoleums for its rulers.) During the Tokugawa shogunate in the 1620s, several large megaliths were incorporated into internal walls. The Tako-ishi (โOctopus Stoneโ), which is the largest stone in terms of surface area (59.43 mยฒ), is at the south end of the castle along the wall just inside the Sakuramon Gate. The Higo-Ishi, is the second largest stone in terms of surface area (54.17 mยฒ) but is estimated to be heavier (about 120 tons compared to 108 tons for the Octopus Stone). It is a part of the wall just inside the northwest entrance to the castle past the Kyobashi Gate. Where the Tako-ishi is aligned east-west, the Higo-Ishi is aligned to minor lunar standstills. Two paths through the Nishinomaru Garden west of the castle are aligned to major and minor lunar standstills.
Inner castle wall that contains Higo-Ishi (left) and alignment of wall to minor lunar standstills (right). (Photo by author/Google Earth)
Ishi no Hoden
The Higo-Ishi is the largest megalith (by weight) at Osaka Castle and the third largest in Japan. Where the Higo-Ishi was quarried from islands in the Seto Inland Sea in the 17th century, the dating of the second-largest megalith is unknown. Ishi no Hoden (“Stone Treasure Hall”) is a 500-ton megalith cut from volcanic tuff in such a way as to appear to float above a pond. Philipp Franz von Siebold was the first Westerner to visit the site in 1826. The megalith is mentioned in an ancient historical record compiled from the year 713 CE onward known as the Harima Fudoki. The document says that it was built by Mononobe no Moriya, one of the strongmen of the 6th century, during the reign of Prince Shotoku, who has been considered one of the greatest figures in Japanโs ancient political history. But there is no mention of what it was for. However, the entries in the records are in conflict because Moriya died in 587 before Prince Shotoku came to power in 593.
Ishi no Hoden (left) and alignments to minor lunar standstills 2000 CE (top right) and 25,000 BCE (bottom right). (Z Tanuki/Creative Commons and Google Earth)
Ishi no Hoden, which is a sacred object of the adjoining Oshiko Jinja Shinto shrine, is rotated about 20ยฐ south of east. Unlike the Shimogamo Shrine and Kenninji Temple that are rotated to view sunrise over an elevated horizon on the equinox, there are no hills or mountains immediately east of Ishi no Hoden. Its north-south axis is also well outside the range of magnetic declinations over the past 10,000 years. There is, however, another possible astronomical explanation for its orientation. As shown above, the megalith separated from the surrounding bedrock appears to be roughly aligned in the direction of minor lunar standstills.
Lacking specific evidence, Ishi no Hoden is traditionally dated to the Kofun Period. Kofun alignments in the direction of minor lunar standstills suggest the Moonโs 18.6-year orbital cycle was known in Japan at that time. Although volcanic tuff is relatively easy to cut and shape compared to granite, there are no other known sites in Japan where a structure of this size was cut out of the native rock and shaped in such a manner.
Many mysteries surround Ishi no Hoden. According to one story, two gods were sent here to build a stone palace. They were given only one day to do it. The local gods rebelled, and by the time the rebellion was suppressed, dawn had broken and the structure was unfinished. The two gods left, saying their spirits would reside within the massive rock and protect the land for eternity.
Google Map views of Ishi no Hoden from the northeast (left) and southwest (right).
According to legend, the Oshiko Jinja Shinto shrine was founded in 97 CE during Emperor Keiko’s reign with โdivine instructionโ to worship the giant floating rock. If this is true, then Ishi no Hoden existed before the Kofun period. This is consistent with its alignment as the structure becomes more closely lined up with minor lunar standstills as you go back in time. Changes in Earthโs obliquity or axial tilt cause the direction of solstices and lunar standstills to change by several degrees over a 41,000-year cycle. The best alignment with minor lunar standstills would have occurred approximately 25,000 BCE. As shown above, its placement near the top of a hill would have provided an excellent view of the Moon rising in the southeast sky at a minor lunar standstill.
Historical photo of Masuda no Iwafume
Masuda no Iwafume
Masuda no Iwafune (โRock Ship of Masudaโ) is the largest megalith in Japan, weighing an estimated 800 to 1,000 tons. Like Ishi no Hoden, it was cut from the native bedrock, not cut and transported like the large megalith found in Osaka Castle. Masuda no Iwafune first appears in the Yamato Meisho Zue โ a famous Edo-period Japanese woodblock-printed guidebook from 1791, focusing on the historic Yamato Province (modern-day Nara area), featuring detailed text and illustrations of famous places, temples, and shrines.
Artist depiction of Masuda no Iwafune in Yamato Meisho Zue.
The megalith is approximately 11 meters (36 feet) long, 8 meters (26 feet) wide, and 4.7 meters (15 feet) high. It lies in a trench with its long axis running roughly eastโwest and sloping down from north to south. Partially obscured by trees, it is difficult to precisely measure its orientation from Google Earth imagery as we have done for the other sites. Using a historical photo of the site and a 3D model, we can confirm that its long axis is aligned roughly east-west.
Click to display interactive 3D model by Atsushi Nakabayashi.
Using the most recent 2025 Google Earth image, a section of its long dimension side is visible and appears to be rotated about 4ยฐ south of east. As shown below, this is in the direction the Sun would rise just over the hills to the east on the equinox. Unlike Shinto and Zen sites that are rotated slightly to be perpendicular to the equinox sunrise direction over an elevated horizon, Masuda no Iwafune lies parallel to it.
Visible part of Masuda no Iwafune with reference lines rotated 4ยฐ east of north (left) and horizon view at 4ยฐ south of east at sunrise on the equinox. (Google Earth)
Although it is generally dated to the Asuka and Nara periods, Masuda no Iwafune is not mentioned in Japanese historical chronicles and ancient records from that time. This seems strange as Japan’s centralized government was in the Asuka region (Nara Prefecture) in the early 6th century, moving to the first permanent capital, modern Nara, around 710, and finally settling in Kyoto in 794, which remained the seat of the imperial court for centuries.
Lacking other historical references, we turn to folklore and legend for clues concerning its origin and purpose. The name Iwafune literally means “stone boatโ. Local folklore claims that it is a celestial ship in which the gods descended to Asuka. Some versions say the gods abandoned the stone ship after it became too heavy. Others say it marks a site where a deity landed during the creation of Japan. A long-standing folktale says the stone was meant to be a tomb for a ghost or giant, but the builders were frightened by supernatural events and abandoned the work. Sometimes the โgiantโ is identified with monsters who supposedly lived in the hills of Asuka. This story may reflect the stoneโs incomplete appearance and mysterious trench. According to another legend, Masuda no Iwafune, which lies between ancient shrines on the mountain, is a boundary marker placed by the gods themselves to delineate the sacred mountain. Some villagers historically believed it was a kamiโs dwelling stone and is one of the reasons it has never been removed or cut for building stone despite being granite.
Current opinion is that Masuda no Iwafune was a tomb that was started but never finished sometime during the Asuka and Nara periods.
Discussion
Structures built during the Kofun Period appear are aligned astronomically to the arc of the Sun and Moon, and in some cases to the southernmost rising and northernmost setting of the Sun and Moon. Lacking other explanations, several kofun might have been aligned geomagnetically like the Chinese pyramids. Heavily influenced by Chinese Buddhist architectural traditions and indigenous beliefs, temples built during the Shinto and Zen periods tended to be aligned to the cardinal directions. Later influenced by Chinese geomancy, castles and the surrounding towns built during the Shogunate Period were often aligned in geomagnetic directions.
Ishi no Hoden (top left), Iinashi Iwafune Tumulus (middle left) and interior (bottom left). Masuda no Iwafume (bottom right), Ishinohoden Tumulus (middle right) and interior (top right). (Saigen Jiro and others)
Comparing Masuda no Iwafune, Iinashi Iwafune Tumulus, Ishi no Hoden, and Ishinohoden Kofun, counter to expectation, Masuda no Iwafune is similar in material (granite) and stonework to Ishinohoden Kofun, and Ishi no Hoden is similar in material (volcanic tuff) and stonework to Iinashi Iwafune Tumulus. All four structures are conventionally dated to the late Kofun Period. Based on the alignment trends of the Kofun, Shinto/Zen, and Shogunate periods, the cardinal alignments east-west of Masuda no Iwafune and north-south of Ishinohoden Kofun would place them in the Kofun to early Shinto/Zen periods. The same is probably true for the Iinashi Iwafune Tumulus.
Based on its approximate alignment to the Moon, Ishi no Hoden could be dated to the Kofun Period. However, as noted earlier, its alignment to minor lunar standstills is off by a few degrees (Figure 3). That its best alignment would have occurred c. 25,000 BCE suggests the possibility that it could be much older. We present this as a mathematical observation and not a dating proposal as no archaeological evidence currently supports such antiquity in Japan. That said, given the Jomon did not have the know how to cut, shape, and align a stone of such size, if such a claim could be substantiated it would open the possibility that Ishi no Hoden was created by some unknown civilization thousands of years before the Jomon.
An investigation of astronomical orientations at Gรถbekli Tepe and other ancient Anatolian sites explores the hypothesis that a significant number of early structures were intentionally aligned to lunar standstills. We find that of 54 pillars at Gรถbekli Tepe, 9 are oriented approximately eastโwest (equinox), 4 toward minor lunar standstills, and 10 toward major lunar standstills. The probabilities that these alignments occurred by chance are extremely small, implying intentional design. Extending the analysis to more than 300 sites across Anatolia, we identify 34 additional examples of astronomical alignment toward the equinoxes, solstices, and both major and minor lunar standstills, distributed across multiple civilizations from the late Neolithic to the Roman period. A comparative study of luni-solar orientations worldwide shows that lunar alignments occur more frequently than solar ones, suggesting that knowledge of the Moonโs 18.6-year orbital cycle was more widespread and ancient than previously recognized. Approximately 90% of the sites examined are unexplained within a fixed geographic pole reference frame. Applying Hapgoodโs theory of Earth crustal displacement, we show that alignments at Adada, Selge, Hattusa, Termessos, and other sites are consistent with lunar standstills and solstices relative to former pole locations. Our findings suggest a continuity of astronomical orientation practices extending from the late Pleistocene into historical times and support the possibility that cultural knowledge of celestial cycles predates the Neolithic Revolution. Interpreted within Furterโs model of static human behavioral archetypes, these results imply that the alignment of sacred and monumental architecture to the Sun and Moon may reflect a universal and enduring aspect of human cognition rather than a localized or time-dependent innovation. By incorporating crustal displacement as a working hypothesis, the study provides a quantitative and potentially unifying framework for understanding global patterns of ancient site orientation within a broader geophysical and anthropological context.
Alignments of individual pillars at Gobeckli Tepe to major lunar standstill moonrise/moonset directions. Base graphic courtesy De Lorenzis and Orofino.
Gรถbekli Tepe and the Moon
Excavations at Gรถbekli Tepe revealed the existence of monumental, circular enclosures built from massive T-shaped stone pillars. Believed to be the world’s oldest known temple, the site is dated to a period in human prehistory known as the Neolithic Transition, when our nomadic hunter-gatherer ancestors began to lead a more settled lifestyle, growing crops, building permanent settlements, and developing new technologies like pottery.
Analysis of the six enclosures at Gรถbekli Tepe reveals several possible astronomical alignments De Lorenzis and Orofino show that four of the enclosures (B, C, D, and E) are oriented towards the setting of the star Deneb, enclosure F is aligned to the rising of the Sun on a day roughly halfway between the summer solstice and the autumn equinox, and enclosure A is aligned to lunar standstills.
Moonrises in one month during the most recent major lunar standstill that occurred in 2024-2025. (Stellarium)Moonrises in one month during the most recent minor lunar standstill that occurred in 2016. (Stellarium)
Lunar Standstills
Most people have a basic understanding of the motion of the Sun โ that it rises in the east and sets in the west. In the Northern Hemisphere, the most northernly sunrise and sunset occur on the summer solstice and the most southernly sunrise and sunset occur on the winter solstice. The situation is reversed in the Southern Hemisphere. Generally speaking, the Moon does in a month what the Sun does in a year. The Moonโs orbital plane tilts up to about 5.1 degrees above and below the ecliptic plane over an 18.6-year cycle. This together with changes in obliquity affect the angle at which the Moon rises and sets. The northernmost moonrise/moonset is called a major lunar standstill. The southernmost moonrise/moonset is called a minor lunar standstill. The most recent major lunar standstill occurred in 2024-2025 and the most recent minor lunar standstill occurred in 2016.
An analysis of the orientation of over 300 other sites in Anatolia found 34 aligned in astronomical (specifically luni-solar) directions that include 10 equinox/cardinal (N-S-E-W) alignments, 3 to solstices, 6 to major lunar standstills, and 19 to minor lunar standstills. (Google Earth)
Lunar Alignments in Anatolia
There is a long history of settlement in Anatolia from the late Neolithic to the Roman and Byzantine period. Four of the site established by these civilizations that are aligned to minor lunar standstills are shown below.
Alignments to minor lunar standstills at Anemourion (top left), Sagalassos (top right), Arslantepe (bottom left) and Gordion (bottom right). (Apple Maps)
Like Sagalassos, Adada was one of the ancient cities of Pisidia mentioned by the Greek historian Strabo (Book XII, Chapter 7):
Artemidorus says that the cities of the Pisidians are Selgรช, Sagalassus, Petnelissus, Adada, Tymbriada, Cremna, Pityassus, Amblada, Anabura, Sinda, Aarassus, Tarbassus, and Termessus. Of these, some are entirely in the mountains, while others extend even as far as the foot-hills on either sideโฆ
However, unlike Sagalassos, Adada does not appear to have been aligned to the Moon or in any other known astronomical direction. However, shifting the frame of reference to the Norwegian Sea pole, the main complex at Adada lines up in the direction of minor lunar standstills relative to the earlier pole as shown above. A smaller structure to the north is oriented in the direction of solstices relative to the Norwegian Sea pole.
Adada was a prosperous Roman city from the 1st century BCE through the 3rd century CE, flourishing particularly during the reigns of Emperors Trajan, Hadrian, and Antoninus Pius, as evidenced by the well-preserved temple complexes dedicated to the emperors and the city’s imperial coinage (right). The orientation of Adada in the direction of minor lunar standstills relative to the Norwegian Sea pole (left) suggests the possibility that it was built on top of pre-existing foundations that could be more than 42,000 years old. (Hasan Karabay/Google Earth and Apple Maps)
Selge
According to Strabo, Selge was founded by the Greek city-state Sparta, but alludes an even earlier founding by the mythical figure Calchas. The amphitheater, which was rebuilt by the Romans in the 3rd century CE is aligned to minor lunar standstills. The acropolis of Selge to the west of the theater known as Cesbedium is mentioned by Polybius in a battle with the Seleucid general, Achaeus. What is particularly interesting is that much of the site, which is ruins, appears to be organized differently. Those atop the acropolis appear to be aligned in the direction of solstices relative to the Greenland pole, as are several other ruined structures to the south (see above). There is also evidence of alignments to major lunar standstills relative to the Greenland pole, and to the Greenland pole itself, all of which support the possibility of an even earlier city founded in myth.
View of the acropolis at Selge from east of the amphitheater (left). Although the amphitheater, which is closely aligned to minor standstills relative to the current pole was built by the Roman, ruins to the south and west (right) appear to be aligned to the Greenland pole (white dotted line) and to solstices relative to the Greenland pole (red/blue). (Dosseman/Creative Commons and Apple Maps)
Hattusa
The earliest traces of Hattusa are from the sixth millennium BC during the Chalcolithic (Copper Age) period. The complex contains numerous features aligned in a variety of ways. The orientation of the Kingโs Gate on the east side of the site is closely aligned to minor lunar standstills. The Lionโs Gate, on the west side, is closely aligned to minor lunar standstills relative to the previous pole in Hudson Bay. Other structures within the site appear to reference both the current and previous pole. The mysterious Green Nephrite Stone within the Great Temple complex is aligned to solstices relative to the Hudson Bay pole.
Lion Gate at Hattusa (top right) is aligned in the direction of minor lunar standstills relative to the Hudson Bay pole (bottom right). Green Nephrite Stone at Hattusa and surrounding structures (top left) are aligned in the direction of the summer solstice sunrise and winter solstice sunset relative to the Hudson Bay pole (bottom left). (Acar54/Creative Commons, Carole Raddato/Creative Commons and Apple Maps
Termessos
Termessos, which is one of the best-preserved ancient cities in Turkey, is linked to the Solymi people, who are mentioned in Homer’s Iliad in relation to the legend of Bellerophon. Termessos was founded by the Solymi, a tribe likely related to the peoples of Isauria and Cilicia. The city’s name, according to Strabo, is derived from the Anatolian god Solymeus, later identified with Zeus. One of the most intriguing aspects is that Alexander the Great failed to conquer Termessos in 333 BC, despite his extensive campaigns. The city’s location on a high mountain, combined with its strong natural defenses, made it nearly impossible to breach. The city was eventually abandoned, likely due to an earthquake that destroyed its essential water supply. The specifics of the disaster and the full timeline of the city’s abandonment remain subjects of mystery. Despite its importance, the site has seen limited excavation, leaving many questions about the city’s history and daily life unanswered.
The most distinctive feature is the amphitheater built in the Hellenistic period, showcasing Greek architectural styles. Later, the theater was rebuilt by the Romans. Unlike similar structures aligned to the equinox sunrise such as the amphitheater at Cyrrhus, the one at Termessos is rotated about 14ยฐ south of east. Sites misaligned several degrees south of east can usually be explained by the Sun rising over an elevated horizon such as a mountain range. This is not the case here as the amphitheater is oriented 10 degrees south of the equinox sunrise direction, which is 4ยฐ south of east at the height of the hill to the east. Aside from this problem, we find that some of the structures are aligned in luni-solar directions including the gymnasium, buildings, and residential ruins. Changing the frame of reference to the Bering Sea pole provides a possible explanation for the unusual alignment of the amphitheater and some of the other structures in the ancient city (see below).
Alignments at Termessos relative to the Bering Sea pole. Current equinox sunrise direction which is 4 degrees south of east is shown for comparison (top left). Two kinds of stonework at Termossos at the amphitheater and bouleuterion (top center and right). Alignments of specific structures to the Bering Sea pole (bottom) include the amphitheater (O1), bouleuterion (O2), and portico (L3) cardinally aligned to the Bering Sea pole, building P3 and a wall aligned to major lunar standstills, and gymnasium (H) aligned to solstices relative to the Bering Sea pole. (Apple Maps, Sedat Boz/Google Earth and Ansgar Bovet/Creative Commons, and Turkish Museums).
Discussion
Is the long history of settlement in Anatolia from the late Neolithic to the present just the latest chapter in an even longer history of this region, extending back to the last ice age?
In contrast to the prevailing paradigm that modern human culture developed as a response to climate and ecological changes at the end of the ice age, Furter offers a different perspective:
The entire conscious, fundamentalist, common sense paradigm of archaeo astronomy is wrong. The โmysteriousโ thing in the cultural record, is that we have a large universal repertoire of standard subconscious behaviour. That behaviour is imprinted all over the cultural record. But our conscious mind finds it hard to see what is hidden in plain sight. The consequences for our self-image are significant. We did not invent, develop, or change culture. Culture is part of the human package, at least since Gobekli at BC 8000, cave art about BC 20 000, Blombos shelter about BC 70 000, and perhaps even Border Cave about BC 100 000, with the usual ensemble of tools, clothing, cosmetics, and trade. Human behaviour is static, and thus predictable, down to the structure of artworks and building sites.
If Furter is correct โ that human behavior is static down to the structure of ancient sites, perhaps human societies have always aligned buildings to the Sun and the Moon. In other words, there is nothing special about Gรถbekli Tepe โ it is simply an example of how the people at that time were expressing the same patterns of behavior that have existed throughout human history.
The inability of conventional archaeoastronomy to explain the alignment of so many ancient sites across the world has led to mixed approaches that often rely on local knowledge (context). Furter asks:
Could archaeo astronomy tell the difference between a myth cycle, a calendar, a zodiac, and a star map? And could it reveal the core content of culture, or explain perception? Correspondences simply mix and match shapes and star lore. Archaeo astronomy needs better theories, and a more scientific paradigm, to rise above the level of parlour games.
If crustal displacement theory is correct, by shifting the geographic reference frame we can explain the alignment of most ancient sites across the world using the same basic alignments we find at Gรถbekli Tepe, thus supporting Furterโs โuniversal repertoireโ and offering a more scientific foundation (albeit tentative and hypothetical) for archaeoastronomy.
Chapters 4-6 in An Inconvenient Theory show that crustal displacements can not only account for most unknown archaeological site alignments but could also be the “missing link” in understanding glacial cycles, ice ages, and certain mass extinctions. However, without an identified physical mechanism, the evidence, no matter how compelling, is not sufficient for it to be considered a proper scientific theory.
Tides of Change
Hapgood originally believed that polar ice imbalances caused crustal shifts, but later abandoned this idea. Picking up from Hapgood left off, Chapter 7 builds on modern geoscience, proposing that Earth-Sun-Moon tidal forces through interactions in the low-viscosity zone (LVZ) beneath the lithosphere might cause the crust to periodically rotate westward relative to the mantle. Drawing from studies of lithospheric drift, the global tectonic pattern, and lunisolar influences on the theoretical rotational axis of the crust relative to the mantle, possible pole shift trajectories and timelines are determined over the last glacial cycle. It is argued that changes in the LVZ could effectively unlock the crust, allowing Earth-Sun-Moon tidal forces to shift the crustal thousands of kilometers over periods of several thousand to perhaps ten thousand years.
Map of the global tectonic pattern where the tectonic mainstream in the same direction as the lithospheric drift. (Courtesy C. Doglioni)
Cycles Within Cycles
Chapter 8 explores the interconnectedness of Earthโs internal dynamics, focusing on how mantle convection may drive major geological and climatic phenomena such as geomagnetic field variations, mass extinctions, true polar wander, and supervolcanic eruptions. It discusses the fractal nature of Earth processes, with self-similar patterns seen across multiple timescales in ocean temperatures and geomagnetic activity. Evidence suggests correlations between geomagnetic excursions and temperature shifts, as well as between supervolcanic eruptions and pole shifts, all possibly rooted in fluctuations in mantle convection. The chapter raises the possibility that changes in mantle convection could be linked to pole shifts, supervolcanic eruptions, and extreme climatic changesโsuggesting a deep, potentially cyclical mechanism underlying these and other surface-level phenomena.
Temperature-geomagnetic field correlations (dotted line) with global sea level (blue) shown for comparison.
The Next Ice Age
Chapter 9 examines the cyclical and fractal nature of Earthโs temperature and geomagnetic field changes, proposing that glacial cycles are not solely driven by solar radiation (Milankovich cycles) but by deeper geophysical forces such as mantle convection. Mantle convection may reduce the viscosity of the Earthโs LVZ, enabling crustal displacements that shift landmasses in and out of polar regions, thereby influencing global temperatures. The chapter argues that these forces work together, influencing the “shape” of the ice ages. It also discusses how global warming could end the current Quaternary Glaciation and forecasts a potential future pole shift that may once again trigger regional glaciation, particularly in Europe. Finally, the chapter examines the importance of the geomagnetic field in shielding Earth from cosmic radiation and speculates that ancient underground cities, such as those in Cappadocia, might have served as protection during periods of weakened magnetic shielding, like the Laschamp geomagnetic excursion 42,000 years ago.
If the North Pole were to shift from the Arctic to another location (discussed in the book), the orientation of the Great Pyramid in Giza would rotate about 20ยฐ clockwise over the course of ten thousand years. (Google Earth)
A final chapter summarizes the new theory, discusses lingering issues, and suggests new directions for future research and discovery.
Feature image at the top of the article: “King tide, Oregon coast.” (Bonnie Moreland/Creative Commons)
The first three chapters inAn Inconvenient Theory highlight key problems with current theories. Problems or anomalies are what drive the scientific process of coming up with new hypotheses, experiments, and ultimately new theories. Chapters 4-6 trace the development of a revised and expanded version of Hapgoodโs theory.
Other Frames of Reference
Chapter 4 examines the hypothesis that many ancient structures around the world, currently misaligned with modern cardinal or astronomical directions, may have been originally aligned to different geographic poles due to shifts in Earth’s crustโa theory proposed by Charles Hapgood. Using great circle algorithms and site orientation data, analysis of over 900 ancient sites identifies four historical pole locationsโHudson Bay, Norwegian Sea, Greenland, and the Bering Seaโthat explain the orientations of hundreds of previously unexplained alignments. These alignments suggest a global pattern of intentional astronomical positioning consistent with solar and lunar cycles, and statistical analysis indicates the improbability of such correlations occurring by chance. This framework challenges conventional archaeology by proposing a testable, mathematical approach that supports the theory of pole shifts and has significant implications for understanding ancient civilizations and past climate changes.
World geography redefined relative to the North Pole in Hudson Bay. (Google Earth)
How to Melt Ice in a Cold World
Chapter 5 explores the inadequacy of traditional climate models in explaining how massive polar ice sheets melted during the coldest periods of Earthโs last glacial cycle, and proposes an alternative mechanism involving crustal displacements. Drawing parallels to Copernicus’s simplification of planetary motion, the chapter critiques existing theories like Milankovich cycles and COโ feedback for failing to fully account for sea level changes. Instead, it advances the idea, inspired by Charles Hapgood, that geographic pole shifts repositioned ice sheets to lower latitudes, where increased solar insolation caused rapid melting. This hypothesis is supported by correlations between polar land area and sea level, as well as the location of the thickest ice in Greenland and Antarctica aligning with regions that remained in polar zones over successive shifts. The chapter also examines ancient maps like the Orontius Fineaus map, suggesting they may depict an ice-free Antarctica based on observations made during past pole configurations, reinforcing the plausibility of large-scale crustal movement as a driver of climate transitions.
Insolation cannot explain bulk changes in polar ice/global sea levels, only smaller short-term fluctuations.
Crustal displacements can account for the difference (the bulk changes) in the accumulation/melting of polar ice at the beginning/end of an ice age.
Ice Ages Revisited
Chapter 6 considers an alternative theory to Milankovitch cycles by proposing that dramatic shifts in Earth’s climate during the Ice Ages were caused by displacements of the lithosphere and corresponding pole shifts, not fluctuations in solar radiation. Drawing on Karl Paulyโs 1952 analysis and Charles Hapgoodโs theory of Earth crustal displacement, the chapter presents evidence that shifting pole positions led to changes in geographic climate zones, explaining alternating glacial and interglacial periods. Fossil and archaeological records from Britain, Mexico, the San Augustin Plains, the Arabian Peninsula, and other places are used to correlate shifts in fauna, flora, and human activity with these hypothesized pole movements. Key examples include the presence of tropical animals in Ice Age Britain, changes in mammoth habitat linked to pole shifts, and archaeological water symbolism in Teotihuacan aligning with a wetter, temperate climate during earlier pole locations. The chapter questions conventional climate models, suggesting that geographic pole shifts better account for regional climate anomalies observed in the paleoclimatic record.
Fossils of the hippopotamus and spotted hyena indicate that Britain had a humid subtropical climate 130,000 years ago. This is consistent with the North Pole being located in the Bering Sea north of the Aleutian Islands at that time. (Google Earth)
As the archaeological implications of crustal displacement theory were covered in Before Atlantis and Beyond Atlantis, the last article in this series delves into the search for an underlying mechanism.
Feature image at the top of the article: Meridians to sites aligned to the current pole (white) and four previous locations of the North Pole in Hudson Bay (magenta), the Norwegian Sea (yellow), Greenland (green), and the Bering Sea (red). (Google Earth)
An Inconvenient Theory continues the search for evidence of ancient civilizations that may have existed long before the end of the last Ice Age. While many researchers have focused on deciphering the technologies behind so-called “out of place” artifacts, my first book, Before Atlantis, takes a different approachโchallenging mainstream views of prehistory by investigating site alignments with ancient geographic poles as potential markers of lost civilizations. Building on this foundation, my second book, Beyond Atlantis, presents compelling evidenceโdrawn from the alignments of over 500 ancient sites to four former pole locationsโthat multiple advanced civilizations may have existed across the globe over the past 130,000 years.
That so many sites seem to point to these four locations had to mean something. The odds of this happening by chance were virtually zero. At a recent conference, someone said the statistical significance of the alignments cannot be disputed, only the dating, and went on to suggest that I should change the dates to be more in line with “what we already know.โ The first three chapters in An Inconvenient Theory highlight key problems with current theories, with “what we already know.โ
Chapter 1 – The Riddle of the Ice Ages
Earthโs climate history is marked by dramatic shifts influenced by complex interactions among atmospheric composition, tectonic activity, and solar radiation. In Chapter 1, we show that ice ages, particularly during the Quaternary period, show strong correlations between temperature, COโ levels, and sea level, though changes in these variables do not happen simultaneously. While Milankovich cyclesโvariations in Earthโs orbit and tiltโare thought to initiate glacial cycles by altering solar insolation, their weak correlation with climate proxies and the unresolved “100,000-year problem” suggest additional factors are needed to explain the timing and magnitude of ice ages. Climate feedbacks, especially from COโ released during warming periods, appear to amplify small orbital changes and may better explain sea level shifts, yet challenges remain in explaining glaciations, indicating gaps in current climate theories.
The riddle of how to melt ice in an unusually cold world remains unsolved and is the fundamental problem with current ice age/climate theories. (Christine Zenino/Creative Commons)
Chapter 2 – Mysteries of the Pleistocene
Chapter 2 explores a wide array of fossil discoveries that challenge conventional understandings of Earthโs climatic and ecological history, particularly during the late Pleistocene. The Pleistocene Epoch, spanning from approximately 2.6 million to 11,700 years ago, was characterized by significant climatic fluctuations, leading to the formation and retreat of extensive ice sheets across the globe. These dynamic environmental changes influenced the distribution and evolution of diverse megafauna, including woolly mammoths, giant ground sloths, and saber-toothed cats. Fossil discoveries in regions like the Arctic, Sahara, and Australia reveal that these areas once hosted ecosystems vastly different from today’s, indicating dramatic shifts in climate and habitat. Ultimately, the chapter underscores how puzzling fossil records from diverse locations point to episodes of extreme environmental transformation during the late Quaternary that are not fully explained by current scientific models.
Mammoth sites ranging from above the Arctic Circle to Mexico are hard to explain in terms of current climate models. (Google Earth)
Chapter 3 – As Above, So Below?
The concept of “As Above, So Below” from Hermetic philosophy suggests a fundamental unity between the cosmos and the Earth, an idea that has long inspired the alignment of ancient structures with celestial phenomena. Archaeoastronomyโthe study of how ancient people understood and utilized astronomical eventsโhas uncovered evidence that many sites across the globe were deliberately oriented to align with the Sun, Moon, stars, or cardinal directions, as seen in places like Stonehenge, Karnak, and Chichรฉn Itzรก. Pioneers such as Norman Lockyer and Alexander Thom proposed bold theories about these alignments, some controversial, laying the foundation for this multidisciplinary field. As we see in Chapter 3, despite significant progress, a large fraction of ancient site orientations remain unexplained, with places like Teotihuacan, Machu Picchu, and Baalbek defying easy categorization. These enigmatic alignments challenge modern researchers to consider not only astronomical, but also cultural, geographical, and possibly unknown factors in interpreting the intentions of ancient builders, leaving the question open as to whether deeper, perhaps lost knowledge once guided these monumental designs.
The foundation of Baalbek, which is constructed from some of the largest megaliths in the world is not aligned in any known geographical/astronomical direction. (Creative Commons/ Lodo27)
The next article describes how these unexplained problems or anomalies drive the scientific process of coming up with new hypotheses, experiments, and ultimately a new theory.ย
Feature image at the top of the article: Mammoth remains radiocarbon dated 10,000โ20,000 years before present unearthed near Mexico City in 2020. (Mexico News Daily)
In Before Atlantis, I presented evidence that advanced civilizations existed throughout the world during the last ice age. My claim was based on over a hundred ancient sites that appeared to point to previous positions of the North Pole. That Earthโs North Pole not only shifted during the last ice age but was responsible for it was a revolutionary idea proposed by Charles Hapgood in his 1958 book Earthโs Shifting Crust. Its publication was somewhat ill-timed in that his theory of crustal displacement was almost immediately dismissed as the emerging theory of plate tectonics, which explained the movement of the continents โ an idea first proposed by Alfred Wegener in the early 20th century, was becoming a dominant paradigm in the geosciences. There were also technical problems with his theory, in particular, Hapgoodโs contention that crustal displacements were caused by a buildup of ice at the poles, an idea that was later shown to be wrong.
Historically, the geoscience community has rejected crustal displacement theory due to the lack of an identified physical process that can shift the crust thousands of miles in relatively short periods of time. The situation is not unlike Wegenerโs theory of continental drift. In 1912, Alfred Wegener proposed that continents were once joined in a supercontinent called Pangaea and have since drifted apart. While he gathered compelling geological, fossil, and climatic evidence, his theory was rejected by many scientists because he could not explain how the continents moved. In the 1960s, Harry Hess proposed the idea of seafloor spreading, where new ocean crust forms at mid-ocean ridges and pushes older crust away. This process gave a mechanism that could move continents, supporting Wegener’s idea.
Long thought to be a theory lacking a plausible mechanism, my latest book, An Inconvenient Theory, explains crustal displacements within the context of existing theories in the geosciences, specifically that changes deep within the Earth can cause the crust at certain times to become “unlocked” from the mantle allowing Earth-Sun-Moon tidal forces, the same forces that move Earthโs oceans, to move its crust. This newly revised and expanded theory of Earth crustal displacement goes beyond the scope of Hapgoodโs original theory in that it connects past poles not only with glacial cycles/ice ages but with what could have been past ages of humanity and offers new hypotheses concerning human history.
In the next three articles, I will highlight how this new theory solves key problems in climate science, paleontology, and archaeology including:
Glacial cycles/ice ages – How massive amounts of ice can melt when global temperatures are coldest at the end of an ice age
Extreme late Pleistocene climate changes and mass extinctions – The presence of woolly mammoths from northern Mexico to above the Arctic circle, the Hippopotamus and other sub-tropical animals at one time in Britain, and Arctic fox and other animals native to polar climates at another time in Britain, and a paleolake in the middle of the Arabian desert, all within the past 130,000 years
Unexplained sites – Why the majority of archaeological sites, including the most enigmatic places in the world, are not aligned in any known direction.
The first article summarizes fundamental problems that current theories cannot explain. These problems or anomalies drive the scientific process of coming up with new hypotheses, experiments, and ultimately a new theory, which is discussed in the second article. The third article in the series proposes possible mechanisms behind crustal displacements.
Featured image at the top of the article: “The moon sets behind Bonaparte Point, Anvers Island, across from Palmer Station, the U.S. Antarctic Programโs smallest research station.โ September 2, 2009. Courtesy Ken Keenan/Creative Commons CC BY-NC-ND 4.0.
During an exploration and survey mission off the west coast of Cuba in 2001, unusual stone structures were detected in sonar imagery at depths ranging from 600 to 750 meters. The discovery was announced by Pauline Zalitzki, a marine engineer, and her husband Paul Weinzweig, who led the mission under the auspices of the Cuban government. Widely reported at the time by the popular press, the discovery has since become a topic of some speculation due to what seemed to be the lack of any follow-up investigation.
More than a decade later, a scientific report was published by the expeditionโs lead scientist, Manuel A. Iturralde-Vinent, in which he states:
At depths between 600 and 750 metres below sea level, EXPLORAMAR researchers found a set of unusual structures that they called MEGA. Since the discovery was revealed to the press, various opinions have been raised about its origin, which have captured the popular imagination. There has been talk of a “submerged city”, the remains of “Atlantis”, a Mayan settlement, among other similar ideas.
He goes on to describe a follow-up investigation that was never reported by the popular press or cited in the scientific literature:
Investigations in the MEGA area were conducted over several years and included the collection of underwater video images, bottom sediment samples, mosaics of side-scan sonar lines, maps of the location of the lines and structures, photos of the observed structures and objects, aerial photos, several detailed bathymetric maps, topographic maps and scientific literature on western Cuba. A group of technicians and navigators on the Cuban Navy research vessel SS Ulysses participated in this work under the direction of engineer Paulina Zelitsky. The author participated in the final phase of the investigation, studying all the collected materials and performing the geological and geomorphological evaluation and interpretation of the possible origin of MEGA.
While researching these structures, I rediscovered Iturralde-Vinent’s report, which has been translated into English. Using it as a starting point, with the help of Google Earth, we can refine the location and depth of the MEGA site, and estimate the orientation of the underwater structures in the sonar scans.
Where Are the Structures?
According to Wikipedia, the underwater formations are at 21.772547ยฐN 84.836736ยฐW southeast of the San Antonio lighthouse at the extreme western tip of Cuba. In his report, Iturralde-Vinent states they are between 21.85 degrees and 21.9 degrees in a submerged valley between the mainland and the Bajo de San Antonio. By registering his map to Google Earth we place the formations at approximately 21.991ยฐ N 84.983ยฐ W, almost 18 miles away from their previously stated location.
Location map of the megalithic structures registered to Google Earth. The shallowest area is the Bajo de San Antonio northwest of the mega structures. The submerged plain to the east is the extension of the Cuban insular platform in Guanahacabibes. (Iturralde-Vinent/Google Earth)
How Deep Are The Structures?
Iturralde-Vinent notes in his report that these structures are in the southeastern portion of the San Antonio Lowlands at depths between 600 and 750 meters. Registering 15 arc-second depth data over this area to Google Earth indicates a shallower range of depths from west to east at the estimated latitude of the structures. The data shows that the water becomes deeper as we move south and shallower north. Thus the structures may be further south than shown here or are in somewhat shallower water than he reported.
15 arc-second SRTM+ depth data registered to Google Earth (above), and plotted as a 3d surface (below left). Depth profile (west to east) at the estimated latitude of the structures (bottom right).
The Sonar Data
According to his analysis, side-scan sonar maps indicate two kinds of structures. The largest ones have the appearance of elongated geometric crests and depressions that resemble amphitheaters. Smaller ones are cubic, parallelepiped and pyramidal blocks, whose faces are relatively polished.
Sonar scan in the southeastern portion of the San Antonio Lowlands oriented west (left) to east (right) that shows an โamphitheaterโ (A) and possible megalithic structures (B). (Iturralde-Vinent)
Iturralde-Vinent states โthe linear nature of some structures and the presence of sectors with the appearance of elements are evidentโ and notes features that appear to be thick “walls” and “corridors.” Several examples are shown below. He goes on to say that the side-scan sonar image on the right โexemplifies one of the most striking structures and one that is difficult to explain by natural causes.โ
Site Alignments
Assuming the sonar scans were accurately registered to a geographic (N-S-E-W) reference frame, the underwater structures are rotated clockwise from the cardinal directions by several degrees.
An analysis of the geographical orientation of almost two hundred archaeological sites in the Western Hemisphere (Beyond Atlantis, chapter 20) reveals that only about 1/3 are cardinally aligned N-S-E-W or in astronomically significant directions. The alignments of five of these sites, provided as context, along with one of the underwater formations, are shown below.
Teotihuacan
Mitla
Uxmal
Merida
Copan
Off Cuba Underwater Formation
Notice the clockwise rotation angle of the sites decreases from west to east. In other words, Teotihuacan, north of Mexico City, which is furthest west is rotated 15.2ยฐ east of north, while the underwater formation off the western coast of Cuba, which is furthest east is rotated 5.6ยฐ. The misalignment of all of these sites can be resolved if we shift the point of reference from the current North Pole in the Arctic Sea to a previous hypothesized geographic pole location in Hudson Bay as shown below.
Alignment of the above sites to the Hudson Bay pole.
Thus, based on their alignment, if these structures are artificial, they could be 20,000 to 40,000 years old according to the pole shift timeline proposed in Before Atlantis.
Pole shifts are correlated with geomagnetic excursions (circles) and super-volcanic events (triangles). Click here for more information.
Out of Time and Out of Place
In his analysis of the MEGA site, Iturralde-Vinent notes the presence of โwell-rounded pebblesโ and โvolcanic scoriaโ in the area. Scoria is a pyroclastic, highly vesicular, dark-colored volcanic rock formed by ejection from a volcano as a molten blob and cooled in the air to form discrete grains called clasts. As there are no volcanoes in the area, the presence of scoria mixed in the seabed is hard to explain. Similarly, there is no mechanism to explain the presence of rounded pebbles that are typically found near rivers.
The depth of these structures would seem to rule out an artificial origin, even during the last glacial maximum (LGM) when global sea levels were at their lowest. However, if the Cuban underwater formations turn out to be artificial, something extraordinary must have happened for them to now lie hundreds of meters below the surface.
After more than two decades, isn’t it time to return to MEGA and find out?
The featured image at the top of the article depicts the Caribbean approximately 20,000 years ago during the last glacial maximum (LGM). (Google Earth/Zรผrich University of Applied Sciences)
